"Se-chōng" pán-pún chi-kan bô-kāng--ê tē-hng
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{{two other uses|historical/cultural Tibet|the administrative region of the People's Republic of China|Tibet Autonomous Region}}
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'''Tibet''' is a [[Tibetan Plateau|plateau region]] in [[Central Asia]] and the home to the indigenous [[Tibetan people]]. With an average [[elevation]] of 4,900 metres (16,000 ft.), it is the highest region on Earth and is commonly referred to as the "Roof of the World." Geographically, [[UNESCO]] and ''Encyclopædia Britannica''<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia |last= Shakabpa |first= Tsepon |coauthors= Victor C. Falkenheim and Turrell V. Wylie |encyclopedia= Britannica Online Encyclopedia |title= Tibet |url= http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9117343/Tibet |accessdate=2008-04-27}}</ref> consider Tibet to be part of [[Central Asia]], while several academic organizations consider it part of [[South Asia]].
Tibet was once an independent kingdom but today is part of the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) (with a small part, depending on definitions, controlled by [[India]]). As an [[exclusive mandate]], Tibet is also officially claimed by the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan). However, the government of the People's Republic of China and the [[Government of Tibet in Exile]] still [[Tibetan sovereignty debate|disagree]] over when Tibet became a part of China, and whether the incorporation into China is legitimate according to [[international law]].
[[Songtsän Gampo]] unifed Tibet in the seventh century. From the early 1600s the [[Dalai Lama]]s of the [[Tibetan Buddhism|Tibetan Buddhist]] faith, commonly known as spiritual leaders of the region, have been heads of a centralised Tibetan administration (at least nominally)<ref name="Grunfeld">The historical status of the Dalai Lamas as actual rulers is disputed. A. Tom Grunfeld's ''The Making of Modern Tibet'', p. 12: "''Given the low life expectancy in Tibet it was not uncommon for incarnations to die before, or soon after, their ascendancy to power. This resulted in long periods of rule by advisers, or, in the ease of Dalai Lama, regents. As a measure of the power that regents must have wielded it is important to note that only three of the fourteen Dalai Lamas have actually ruled Tibet. From 1751 to 1960 regents ruled for 77 percent of the time''"</ref>, and are believed to be the emanations of [[Avalokiteśvara]] ("Chenrezig" [''spyan ras gzigs''] in Tibetan), the [[bodhisattva]] of compassion.
Between the 17th century and the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communist]] intervention in 1959, the Dalai Lama and his regents were claimed by Tibetans as a political power administering religious and administrative authority<ref name="Grunfeld"/> over large parts of Tibet from the traditional capital [[Lhasa]].
==Definitions of Tibet==
[[Image:Flag of Tibet.svg|thumb|right|200px|[[Flag of Tibet]] used intermittently between 1912 and 1950. This version was introduced by the 13th Dalai Lama in 1912. The flag is outlawed in the [[People's Republic of China]].]]
When the People's Republic of China (PRC) refers to Tibet, it means the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] (TAR): a [[province of China|province]]-level entity which, according to the territorial claims of the PRC, includes [[Arunachal Pradesh]] (which is an Indian state but disputed by China). The TAR covers the [[Dalai Lama]]'s former domain, consisting of Ü-Tsang and western Kham, while Amdo and eastern Kham are part of [[Qinghai]], [[Gansu]], [[Yunnan]], and [[Sichuan]].
When the [[Central Tibetan Administration|Government of Tibet in Exile]] and the Tibetan refugee community abroad refer to Tibet, they mean the areas consisting of the traditional provinces of [[Amdo]], [[Kham]], and [[Ü-Tsang]], but excluding [[Sikkim]], [[Bhutan]], and [[Ladakh]] that have also formed part of the Tibetan cultural sphere.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
The difference in definition is a major source of dispute. The distribution of Amdo and eastern Kham into surrounding provinces was initiated by the [[Yongzheng Emperor]] during the 18th century and has been continuously maintained by successive Chinese governments. Tibetan exiles, in turn, consider the maintenance of this arrangement from the 18th century as part of a [[divide and rule|divide-and-rule]] policy.{{Fact|date=August 2007}}
== Name ==
===In English===
The English word ''Tibet'', like the word for Tibet in most European languages, is derived from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''Tubbat''.<ref name="Partridge">Partridge, Eric, ''Origins: A Short Etymological Dictionary of Modern English'', New York, 1966, p. 719.</ref> This word is derived via [[Persian language|Persian]] from the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] word ''Töbäd'' (plural of ''Töbän''), meaning "the heights".<ref name="Behr" /><ref name="Sellheim" /> In Medieval Chinese, 吐蕃 (pronounced ''tǔbō''), is derived from the same Turkic word.<ref name="Behr" /> 吐蕃 was pronounced /t'o-bw{{IPA|ǝ}}n/ in Medieval times.
The exact derivation of the name is, however, unclear. Some scholars believe that the named derived from that of a people who lived in the region of northeastern Tibet and were referred to as 'Tübüt'. This was the form adapted by the Muslim writers who rendered it Tübbett, Tibbat, etc., from as early as the 9th century, and it then entered European languages from the reports of the medieval European accounts of [[Piano-Carpini]], [[Rubruck]], [[Marco Polo]] and the [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchin]] monk [[Francesco della Penna]].<ref>Stein, R. A. ''Tibetan Civilization'' (1922). English edition with minor revisions in 1972 Stanford University Press, p. 31. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.</ref>
[[PRC]] scholars favor the theory that "Tibet" is derived from ''tǔbō''.<ref name="Partridge"/><ref>China Tibet Information Center [http://www.tibet.cn/english/services/forum/for_002.htm "The Origin of the Name of Tibet"]</ref>
=== In Tibetan ===
Tibetans call their homeland ''Bod'' (<font face="jomolhari">བོད་</font>), pronounced [{{IPA|pʰøʔ}}] in Lhasa dialect. It is first attested in the geography of [[Ptolemy]] as βαται (batai) (Beckwith, C. U. of Indiana Diss. 1977). Tibetans refer to Tibet as a "[[fatherland]]" ({{bo|t=<font face="jomolhari">ཕ་ཡུལ་</font>|w=pha-yul}}), whereas "[[motherland]]" ({{bo|t=<font face="jomolhari">མ་ཡུལ་</font>|w=ma-yul}}) is a [[neologism]] introduced after the communist take over to refer to [[China]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
=== In Chinese ===
[[Image:Himalayas-Lhasa15.JPG|thumb|right|260px|Tibetan plateau]]
The PRC's Chinese name for Tibet, 西藏 (Xīzàng), is a phonetic transliteration derived from the region called [[Tsang]] (western [[Ü-Tsang]]). The Chinese name originated during the [[Qing Dynasty]] of China, ca. 1700. It can be broken down into “xī” 西 (literally “west”), and “zàng” 藏 (from [[Ü-Tsang]], but also literally “Buddhist scripture,” or “storage” or possibly "treasure"<ref>See [[Transliteration into Chinese characters]] for more information on the relationship between literal meanings and sound transliterations.</ref>). The pre-1700s historic Chinese term for Tibet was {{linktext|吐蕃}}. In modern [[Standard Mandarin]], the first character is pronounced "tǔ". The second character is normally pronounced "fān"; in the context of references to Tibet, most authorities say that it should be pronounced "bō", while some authorities state that it should be pronounced as "fān".<ref>"现代汉语词典","遠東漢英大辭典".</ref> Its reconstructed Medieval Chinese pronunciation is /t'obw{{IPA|ǝ}}n/, which comes from the [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] word for “heights” which is also the origin of the English term “Tibet”.<ref name="Behr">Behr, W., [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0078-6527(1994)34%3C557%3ATCTL%3E2.0.CO%3B2-9 "Stephan V. Beyer, ''The Classical Tibetan Language''"] (book review), ''Oriens'' 34 (1994): 557–564.</ref><ref name="Sellheim">Sellheim, R. "''Oriens - Journal of the International Society for Oriental Research: 1994''". [[Brill Publishers]], 1994. [http://books.google.com/books?id=NHN6KTAVR28C&pg=PA559&dq=t%C3%B6p%C3%BCt&lr=&hl=tr&sig=x1RLRVdRn9zBxkX84i5X45GZh84 ''page 559'']</ref> When expressing themselves in Chinese, many exiled Tibetans, including the Dalai Lama's government in Daramsala, now use the term 吐博 Tǔbó.
[[Image:Nomads near Namtso.jpg|thumb|left||250px|Pastoral nomads camping near [[Namtso]] in 2005]]
The government of the [[People's Republic of China]] equates Tibet with the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] (TAR). As such, the name “Xīzàng” is equated with the TAR. Some English-speakers reserve “Xīzàng”, the Chinese word transliterated into English, for the TAR, to keep the concept distinct from that of historic Tibet.{{Fact|date=November 2007}}The character 藏 (zàng) has been used in transcriptions referring to Tsang as early as the [[Yuan Dynasty]], if not earlier, though the modern term "Xizang" (western Tsang) was devised in the 18th century. The Chinese character 藏 (Zàng) has also been generalized to refer to all of Tibet, including other concepts related to Tibet such as the [[Tibetan language]] (藏文, Zàngwén) and the Tibetan people (藏族, Zàngzú).
==Language==
[[Image:IMG 0996 Lhasa Barkhor.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A Tibetan woman in [[Lhasa]]]]
The [[Tibetan language]] is spoken in various dialects which are usually, but not always, mutually comprehensible.
:"Whenever literate Tibetans correspond, however, they write in much the same language, regardless of how far separated are the regions from which they hail. This situation may be thought of in part as the distant afterglow of the old Tibetan empire, whose rule embraced (and extended at times far beyond) the present Tibetan linguistic area, which runs from northern Pakistan in the west to Yunnan and Sichuan in in the east, and from north of the Kokonor lake (Qinghai) south as far as Bhutan. Throughout this vast territory, the spoken languages are mostly recognizable as varieties of Tibetan, whether mutually comprehensible or not, while classical written Tibetan has generally served, for more than a millennium, as the dominant literary language.
From the perspective of historical linguistics, Tibetan most closely resembles Burmese among the major languages of Asia. Grouping these two together with other apparently related languages spoken in the Himalayan lands, as well as in the highlands of Southeast Asia and the Sino-Tibetan frontier regions, linguists have generally concluded that there exists a Tibeto-Burman family of languages.... More controversial is the theory that the Tibeto-Burman family is itself part of a larger language family, called Sino-Tibetan, and that through it Tibetan and Burmese are distant cousins of Chinese."<ref>Kapstein, Matthew T. ''The Tibetans'', p. 19. (2006). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22574-4.</ref>
In general, the dialects of central Tibet (including Lhasa), [[Kham]], [[Amdo]], and some smaller nearby areas are considered Tibetan dialects, while other forms, particularly [[Dzongkha]], [[Sikkimese language|Sikkimese]], [[Sherpa language|Sherpa]], and [[Ladakhi language|Ladakhi]], are considered for political reasons by their speakers to be separate languages.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Ultimately, taking into consideration this wider understanding of Tibetan dialects and forms, "greater Tibetan" is spoken by approximately 6 million people across the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. Tibetan is also spoken by approximately 150,000 exile speakers who have fled from modern-day Tibet to [[India]] and other countries.
The Tibetan language has its own script, which is derived from the ancient Indian [[Brahmi]] script.<ref>Kapstein, Matthew T. ''The Tibetans'', p. 22. (2006). Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-631-22574-4.</ref>
== History ==
{{main|History of Tibet}}
{{see|History of European exploration in Tibet|Foreign relations of Tibet|Tibet during the Ming Dynasty}}
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[[Image:Songstengampo.jpg|thumb|left|240px|[[Songtsen Gampo|King Songtsen Gampo]]]]
The general history of Tibet begins with the rule of [[Songtsän Gampo]] (604–50 CE) who united parts of the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River (Tibet)|Yarlung River]] Valley and ruled Tibet as a kingdom. He also brought in many reforms and Tibetan power spread rapidly creating a large and powerful empire. In 640 he married [[Princess Wencheng]], the niece of the powerful Chinese emperor [[Emperor Taizong of Tang China]].
Under the next few kings who followed Songsten Gampo, Buddhism became established as the state religion and Tibetan power increased even further over large areas of Central Asia while major inroads were made into Chinese territory, even reaching the Chinese capital Chang'an (modern [[Xian]]) in late 763.<ref>Beckwith 1987: 146.</ref> However, Tibetan troops occupied Chang'an for only fifteen days.
[[Nanzhao]] (in [[Yunnan]] and neighbouring regions) remained under Tibetan control from 750 to 794, when they turned on their Tibetan overlords and helped the Chinese inflict a serious defeat on the Tibetans.<ref>Marks, Thomas A. (1978). "Nanchao and Tibet in South-western China and Central Asia." ''The Tibet Journal''. Vol. 3, No. 4. Winter 1978, pp. 13-16.</ref>
The Tibetans were allied with the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Arabs]] and eastern [[Turkic people|Turks]]. In 747, the hold of Tibet was loosened by the campaign of general [[Gao Xianzhi]], who tried to re-open the direct communications between [[Central Asia]] and [[Kashmir]]. By 750 the Tibetans had lost almost all of their central Asian possessions to the [[Tang dynasty|Chinese]]. However, after Gao Xianzhi's defeat by the [[Arab Empire|Arabs]] and [[Karluks|Qarluqs]] at the [[Battle of Talas]] river (751), Chinese influence decreased rapidly and Tibetan influence resumed.
In 821/822 CE Tibet and China signed a remarkable peace treaty. A bilingual account of this treaty including details of the borders between the two countries are inscribed on a stone pillar which stands outside the [[Jokhang]] temple in Lhasa.<ref>'A Corpus of Early Tibetan Inscriptions''. H. E. Richardson. Royal Asiatic Society (1985), pp. 106–43. ISBN 0-94759300/4.</ref> Tibet continued as a Central Asian empire until the mid-9th century.
====Tibet and the Mongols====
At the end of the 1230s, the [[Mongolian Empire|Mongols]] turned their attention to Tibet. At that time, Mongol armies had already conquered Northern China, much of Central Asia, and as far as Russia and modern Ukraine. The Tibetan nobility, however, was fragmented and mainly occupied with internal strife. [[Göden]], a brother of [[Güyük Khan|Güyük]], entered the country in 1240. A second invasion led to the submission almost all Tibetan states. In 1244, Göden summoned the [[Sakya Pandita]] to his court, and in 1247 appointed Sakya the Mongolian viceroy for Central Tibet, though the eastern provinces of Kham and Amdo remained "under direct Mongol rule".<ref>Laird, Thomas (2006). ''The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama'', pp. 112-113. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1.</ref> When [[Kublai Khan]] founded Yuan Dynasty in 1271, Tibet became a part of the Yuan Dynasty.
[[Image:World 820.png|thumb|right|350px|Tibet in 820 in relation to the other powers]]
[[Image:Kublai Khan.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Kublai Khan]]]]
Between 1346 and 1354, towards the end of the Yuan Dynasty, the House of [[Pagmodru]] toppled the Sakya. The following 80 years were a period of relative stability. They also saw the birth of the [[Gelugpa]] school (also known as ''Yellow Hats'') by the disciples of [[Tsongkhapa|Tsongkhapa Lobsang Dragpa]], and the founding of the important [[Ganden]], [[Drepung]], and [[Sera monastery|Sera]] monasteries near Lhasa. After the 1430s, the country entered another period of internal power struggles.<ref>Karenina Kollmar-Paulenz, ''Kleine Geschichte Tibets'', München 2006, p. 98-104</ref>
In 1578, [[Altan Khan]] of the [[Tümed]] Mongols invited [[Sönam Gyatso]], a high lama of the Gelugpa school. They met near [[Qinghai|Khökh Nuur]], where Altan Khan first referred to Sönam Gyatso as the ''Dalai Lama''; ''Dalai'' being the Mongolian translation of the Tibetan name Gyatso, or "Ocean".<ref>Laird, Thomas (2006). ''The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama'', pp. 142-143. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1.</ref>
In the 1630s, Tibet became entangled in the power struggles between the rising [[Manchu]] and various Mongol and [[Oirad]] factions. [[Ligden Khan]] of the [[Chakhar]], on the retreat from the Manchu, set out to Tibet to destroy the Yellow Hat school but died on the way near [[Koko Nur]] in 1634. <ref>Micheal Weiers, ''Geschichte der Mongolen'', Stuttgart 2004, pp. 182ff.</ref> His vassal [[Tsogt Taij]] continued the fight but was defeated and killed by [[Güshi Khan]] of the [[Khoshud]] in 1637, who, in turn, became the overlord over Tibet, and acted as a "Protector of the Yellow Church"<ref>Rene Grousset, ''The Empire of the Steppes'', New Brunswick 1970, p. 522.</ref>. Güshi helped the [[Lozang Gyatso, 5th Dalai Lama|Fifth Dalai Lama]] to establish himself as the highest spiritual and political authority in Tibet and destroyed any potential rivals.
In 1705, [[Lha-bzang Khan|Lobzang Khan]] of the Khoshud used the [[6th Dalai Lama]]'s escapades as excuse to take control of Tibet. The regent was murdered, and the Dalai Lama sent to Beijing. He died on the way, also near [[Koko Nur]], ostensibly from illness. Lobzang Khan appointed a new Dalai Lama, who, however, was not accepted by the Gelugpa school.
A [[Kelzang Gyatso, 7th Dalai Lama|rival reincarnation]] was found in the region of Koko Nur. The [[Dzungars]] invaded Tibet in 1717, deposed and killed a pretender to the position of Dalai Lama (who had been promoted by Lhabzang), which met with widespread approval. However, the Dzungars soon began to loot the holy places of Lhasa which brought a swift response from Emperor [[Kangxi]] in 1718, but his military expedition was annihilated by the Dzungars not far from Lhasa.<ref>Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). ''Tibet and its History''. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk)</ref><ref>Stein, R. A. ''Tibetan Civilization''. (1972), p. 85. Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1 (cloth); ISBN 0-8047-0901-7.(paper)</ref>
Emperor Kangxi finally expelled the [[Dzungars]] from Tibet in 1720 and the troops were hailed as liberators. They brought Kelzang Gyatso with them from Kumbum to Lhasa and he was installed as the [[Seventh Dalai Lama]] in [[1721]], though they did not make Tibet a province, allowed it to maintain its own officials and legal and administrative systems, and levied no taxes.<ref>Richardson, Hugh E. (1984). ''Tibet and its History''. Second Edition, Revised and Updated, pp. 48-9. Shambhala. Boston & London. ISBN 0-87773-376-7 (pbk)</ref><ref>Laird, Thomas (2006). ''The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama'', p. 226. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1.</ref> However, the [[Manchu]] [[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] put [[Amdo]] under their control in 1724, and incorporated eastern [[Kham]] into neighbouring Chinese provinces in 1728.<ref name="Wang 162-6">Wang Jiawei, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, pp. 162-6.</ref> The Qing government sent a resident commissioner, namely ''[[Amban]]'', to Lhasa. In 1751, [[Qianlong|Emperor Qianlong]] installed the Dalai Lama as both the spiritual leader and political leader of Tibet leading the government, namely ''[[Kashag]]''.<ref name="Wang 170-3">Wang Jiawei, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, pp. 170–3.</ref>
====Tibet under Qing====
While the ancient relations between Tibet and China are complicated, there can be no question regarding the subordination of Tibet to Manchu-ruled China following first decaded of the 18th century.<ref>Goldstein, M.C., ''A History of Modern Tibet: The Demise of the Lamaist State'', University of California Press, p44</ref> In 1788, [[Gurkha]] forces sent by [[Bahadur Shah]], the Regent of [[Nepal]], invaded Tibet, occupying a number of frontier districts. The young Panchen Lama fled to Lhasa and Qing [[Emperor Qianlong]] sent troops to Lhasa, upon which the Nepalese withdrew agreeing to pay a large annual sum. In 1791 the Nepalese Gurkhas invaded Tibet a second time, seizing [[Shigatse]] and destroyed, plundered, and desecrated the great [[Tashilhunpo]] Monastery. The Panchen Lama was forced to flee to Lhasa once again. Emperor Qianlong then sent an army of 17,000 men to Tibet. In 1793, with the assistance of Tibetan troops, they managed to drive the Nepalese troops to within about 30 km of [[Kathmandu]].<ref>Teltscher, Kate (2006). ''The High Road to China: George Bogle, the Panchen Lama, and the First British Expedition to Tibet'', pp. 244-246. Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York. ISBN 978-0-374-21700-6.</ref>
[[Image:FrancisYounghusband.jpg|thumb|left|150px|[[Francis Younghusband]]]]
The first Europeans to arrive in Tibet were [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] missionaries in 1624 and were welcomed by the Tibetans who allowed them to build a [[church]]. The 18th century brought more [[Jesuits]] and [[Order of Friars Minor Capuchin|Capuchins]] from Europe who gradually met opposition from Tibetan [[lama]]s who finally expelled them from Tibet in 1745. However, at the time not all Europeans were banned from the country — in 1774 a Scottish nobleman, [[George Bogle (diplomat)|George Bogle]], came to [[Shigatse]] to investigate [[trade]] for the [[British East India Company]], introducing the first [[potato]]es into Tibet.<ref>Teltscher, Kate. (2006). ''The High Road to China: George Bogle, the Panchen Lama and the First British Expedition to Tibet'', p. 57. Bloomsbury, London, 2006. ISBN 0374217009; ISBN 978-0-7475-8484-1;
Farrar, Straus and Giroux, New York. ISBN 978-0-374-21700-6</ref>
However, by the 19th century the situation of foreigners in Tibet grew more tenuous. The [[British Empire]] was encroaching from northern [[India]] into the [[Himalayas]] and [[Afghanistan]] and the [[Russian Empire]] of the [[tsar]]s was expanding south into [[Central Asia]] and each power became suspicious of intent in Tibet. [[Sándor Kőrösi Csoma]], the Hungarian scientist spent 20 years in British India (4 years in [[Ladakh]]) trying to visit Tibet. He created the first Tibetan-English dictionary.
By the 1850s Tibet had banned all foreigners from Tibet and shut its borders to all outsiders.
In 1865 [[Great Britain]] began secretly mapping Tibet. Trained Indian surveyor-spies disguised as [[pilgrim]]s or traders counted their strides on their travels across Tibet and took readings at night. Then, in 1904 a [[British Empire|British]] mission under the command of Colonel [[Francis Younghusband]], accompanied by a large military escort, invaded Tibet and reached Lhasa.
The principal pretext for the British invasion was a fear, which proved to be unfounded, that [[Russia]] was extending its power into Tibet and possibly even giving military aid to the local Tibetan government. But on his way to Lhasa, Younghusband slaughtered many Tibetan troops in [[Gyangzê]] who tried to stop the British advance. [[Image:MG 5813.JPG|thumb|right|250px|[[Sera Monastery]], [[Lhasa]], Tibet (2006)]]
When the mission reached Lhasa, the Dalai Lama had already fled to [[Urga]] in [[Mongolia]], Younghusband found the option of returning to India empty-handed untenable, he proceeded to draft a treaty unilaterally, and have it signed in the Potala by the regent, Ganden Tri Rinpoche, and any other local officials he could gather together as an ''ad hoc'' government. The treaty made provisions for the frontier between [[Sikkim]] and Tibet to be respected, for free trade between British and Tibetan subjects, and for an indemnity to be paid from the Qing court to the British Government for its expenses in dispatching armed troops to Lhasa. The provisions of this 1904 treaty were confirmed in a 1906 treaty [http://tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties11.html Anglo-Chinese Convention] signed between [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and China. The British, for a fee from the Qing court, also agreed "not to annex Tibetan territory or to interfere in the administration of Tibet", while China engaged "not to ''permit'' any other foreign state to interfere with the territory or internal administration of Tibet".<ref name="treaty1906">[http://tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties11.html Convention Between Great Britain and China Respecting Tibet (1906)]</ref><ref>Bell, 1924, p. 288.</ref>
The position of British Trade Agent at Gyangzê was occupied from 1904 until 1944. It was not until 1937, with the creation of the position of "Head of British Mission Lhasa", that a British officer had a permanent posting in Lhasa itself.<ref>McKay, 1997, pp. 230–1.</ref>
In [[1910]], the Qing government sent a military expedition of its own to establish direct Chinese rule and deposed the Dalai Lama in an imperial edict. The Dalai Lama once again fled, this time to British India, in February 1910. [[Image:DalaiLama-13 lg.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[13th Dalai Lama]]]]The Dalai Lama returned to Tibet from India in July 1912, and by the end of the year the Chinese troops in Tibet had returned, via India, to [[China Proper]].
====Proclaiming independence====
In early 1913, [[Agvan Dorzhiev]] and two other Tibetan representatives signed a [[Treaty between Tibet and Mongolia (1913)|treaty]] in [[Ulaanbaatar|Urga]], proclaiming mutual recognition and their independence from China. John Snelling says: "Though sometimes doubted, this Tibet-Mongolia Treaty certainly existed. It was signed on [[29 December]] [[1912]] (OS) [that is, by the [[Julian Calendar]] - thus making it [[8 January]] [[1913]] by the [[Gregorian Calendar]] that we use] by Dorzhiev and two Tibetans on behalf of the Dalai Lama, and by two Mongolians for the Jebtsundamba Khutukhtu." He then quotes the full wording of the treaty (in English) from the British Public Records Office: FO [Foreign Office] 371 1609 7144: Sir George Buchanan to Sir Edward Grey, St. Petersburg, dated [[11 February]] [[1913]].<ref>''Snelling, John.'' (1993). ''Buddhism in Russia: The Story of Agvan Dorzhiev, Lhasa's Emissary to the Tsar''. (1993) Element Inc., pp. 150-151; 292. ISBN 1-85230-332-8</ref> However, other sources claim the 13th Dalai Lama denied he authorized Agvan Dorzhiev to represent Tibet to sign a treaty.<ref>Grunfeld, A. Tom, ''The Making of Modern Tibet'', p. 65.</ref><ref>Bell, Charles, ''Tibet Past and Present'', 1924, pp. 150-151.</ref>. Pursuits of complete independence were officially renounced by Tibet and Mongolia respectively in [[1914]] and [[1915]]. On [[3 July]], 1914, The Tibetans signed the Simla Convention which reaffirmed Chinese [[suzerainty]] and Tibet's status as "''part of Chinese territory''"<ref>Treaty text of the [http://www.tibetjustice.org/materials/treaties/treaties16.html Simla Convention of 1914]</ref><ref name=Goldstein1989-75>The Chinese government initialed but refused to ratify the Agreement. See Goldstein, Melvyn C., ''A History of Modern Tibet'', p75 for details</ref>, and on [[25 May]], 1915, Mongolia signed a tripartite treaty reaffirming, at least nominally, subordination to China.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/mongolia/26.htm Mongolia - Modern Mongolia, 1911-84], Country Studies US</ref><ref>Treaty text quoted from B.L. Putnam Weale, [http://www.fullbooks.com/The-Fight-For-The-Republic-In-China8.html The Fight For The Republic In China]</ref>
The subsequent outbreak of [[World War I]] and the [[Warlord era|division of China into military cliques]] ruled by [[warlord]]s caused the Western powers and the infighting factions within China to lose interest in Tibet, and the 13th Dalai Lama ruled undisturbed until his death in 1933. At that time, the government of Tibet controlled all of [[Ü-Tsang|Ü-Tsang (Dbus-gtsang)]] and western [[Kham|Kham (Khams)]], somewhat larger than the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] today. Eastern Kham, separated by the [[Yangtze River]], was under the control of Chinese warlord [[Liu Wenhui]].
In 1935 the 14th Dalai Lama, [[Tenzin Gyatso]] was born in Amdo in eastern Tibet and was recognized as the latest reincarnation. He was taken to [[Lhasa]] in 1937 where he was later given an official ceremony in 1939. In 1944, during [[World War II]], two [[Austria]]n mountaineers, [[Heinrich Harrer]] and [[Peter Aufschnaiter]] came to Lhasa, where Harrer became a tutor and friend to the young Dalai Lama giving him a sound knowledge of western culture and modern society, until he was forced to leave in 1959.
Since 1951, Tibet has been under China's control. According to a 1951 agreement between the Tibetan government and the [[PRC]], Dalai Lama-ruled Tibetan area was supposed to be a largely autonomous region of China.
As in China, some of the population of Tibet were serfs ("''mi ser''") prior to the installation of the Communist government,<ref>Goldstein, Melvyn, ''An Anthropological Study of the Tibetan Political System'', 1968, p. 40</ref><ref>Rahul, Ram, ''The Structure of the Government of Tibet, 1644-1911'', 1962, pp. 263-298.</ref>. They were often bound to land owned by [[monasteries]] or aristocrats. The serfdom is well documented; [[Anna Louise Strong]], a [[jounalist]], wrote a book, ''[[When Serfs Stood Up in Tibet]]'', based on her travel experience in Tibet, which documented some details of the serfdom, and contained many interviews with Tibetans on the subject. There was also [[slavery]],<ref>Gelder and Gelder, The Timely Rain, 110</ref><ref>Bell, Charles, _Tibet: Past and Present_, Oxford, 1924, pp. 78-79.</ref><ref>Meltzer, Milton, _Slavery: A World History_, New York, 1993, Vol. II, p. 258.</ref> although its severity and extent has been disputed among [[historian]]s.
Tibetans-in-exile have claimed that the serfs and their masters formed only a small part of Tibetan society, and argued that Tibet would have modernized itself without China's intervention. The Chinese government, on the other hand, claims that most Tibetans were still serfs in 1951,<ref name="Wang 194-7">Jiawei, Wang, "The Historical Status of China's Tibet", 2000, pp 194-7</ref>, and have proclaimed that the Tibetan government inhibited the development of Tibet during its self-rule from 1913 to 1959, and opposed any modernization efforts proposed by the Chinese government.<ref name="Wang 194-7" />
A rebellion led by noblemen and monasteries broke out in [[Amdo]] and eastern [[Kham]] in June 1956. The insurrection, supported by the American [[CIA]], eventually spread to Lhasa. It was crushed by 1959. During this campaign, tens of thousands of Tibetans were killed and the 14th Dalai Lama and other government principals fled to exile in India.<ref>Laird, Thomas (2006). ''The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama'', pp. 320-328. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1.</ref>
====Tibet under PRC 1959-====
{{POV|date=May 2008}}
[[Image:Rinpoche.JPG|thumb|250px|left|The Chairman of the Cabinet of the CTA, Samdhong Rinpoche]]
The [[Central Tibetan Administration]] states that the number that have died in the [[Great Leap Forward]], of violence, or other indirect causes since 1950 is approximately 1.2 million,<ref>[http://www.tibet.net/en/diir/pubs/wp/tb96/Tibet%20Proving%20Truth.pdf 'Tibet: Proving Truth from Facts'], ''The Department of Information and International Relations: Central Tibetan Administration'', 1996. p. 53</ref> which the Chinese Communist Party denies. The Chinese Communist Party's official toll of deaths recorded for the whole of China for the years of the Great Leap Forward is 14 million{{Fact|date=May 2007}}, but scholars have estimated the number of the famine victims to be between 20 and 43 million<ref>Peng Xizhe (彭希哲), "Demographic Consequences of the Great Leap Forward in China's Provinces," ''Population and Development Review'' 13, no. 4 (1987), 639–70.<br>For a summary of other estimates, please refer to this [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm#Mao link]</ref>. According to Patrick French, the estimate of 1.2 million in Tibet is not reliable because Tibetans were not able to process the data well enough to produce a credible total. There were, however, many casualties, with a figure of 400,000 extrapolated from a calculation Warren W. Smith made from census reports of Tibet which show 200,000 "missing" from Tibet.<ref>''Tibet, Tibet'' ISBN 1-4000-4100-7, pp. 278–82</ref><ref>Warren W. Smith, ''Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations'' ISBN 0-8133-3155-2, p. 600</ref>
The Dalai Lama has stated his willingness to negotiate with China for genuine autonomy, but according to the government in exile and Tibetan independence groups, most Tibetans still call for full Tibetan independence. The Dalai Lama sees the millions of government-imported Han immigrants {{Fact|date=August 2007}} and preferential socioeconomic policies, as presenting an urgent threat to the Tibetan nation and culture. Tibetan exile groups say that despite recent attempts to restore the appearance of original Tibetan culture to attract tourism, the traditional Tibetan way of life is now irrevocably changed. [[Tashi Wangdi]], the Representative of the [[Tenzin Gyatso|Dalai Lama]], stated in an interview that China's [[Western China Development]] program "is providing facilities for the resettlement of [[w:Han Chinese|Han Chinese]] in Tibet."<ref>[http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Dalai_Lama%27s_representative_talks_about_China%2C_Tibet%2C_Shugden_and_the_next_Dalai_Lama Interview with Tashi Wangid], David Shankbone, ''[[Wikinews]]'', November 14, 2007.</ref>
Projects that the PRC claims to have benefited Tibet as part of the [[China Western Development]] economic plan, such as the [[Qinghai-Tibet Railway]], have roused fears of facilitating military mobilisation and Han migration.<ref>[http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/02/24/MNG7FBG71U1.DTL Train heads for Tibet, carrying fears of change]</ref> There is still ethnic imbalance in appointments and promotions to the civil and judicial services in the Tibetan Autonomous Region, with disproportionately few ethnic Tibetans appointed to these posts.<ref>[http://www.savetibet.org/news/newsitem.php?id=674 Personnel Changes in Lhasa Reveal Preference for Chinese Over Tibetans, Says TIN Report]</ref>
The PRC, on the other hand, claims that its rule over Tibet is an unalloyed improvement, but foreign governments continue to make occasional protests about aspects of PRC rule in Tibet because of frequent reports of human rights violation in Tibet by groups such as [[Human Rights Watch]]. The government of the PRC maintains that the Tibetan Government did almost nothing to improve the Tibetans' material and political standard of life during its rule from 1913–59, and that they opposed any reforms proposed by the Chinese government. According to the Chinese government, this is the reason for the tension that grew between some central government officials and the local Tibetan government in 1959.<ref name="Wang 194-7" />
The government of the PRC also rejects claims that the lives of Tibetans have deteriorated, and states that the lives of Tibetans have been improved immensely compared to self rule before 1950.<ref>Peter Hessler, [http://www.csd99.k12.il.us/khector/tibet_analysis.htm 'Tibet Through Chinese Eyes'], ''The Atlantic Monthly'', Feb. 1999</ref>
The [[Cultural Revolution]] and the cultural damage it wrought upon Tibet and, indeed, the entire PRC is generally condemned as a nationwide catastrophe, whose main instigators, in the PRC's view, the so-called [[Gang of Four]], have been brought to justice. The [[China Western Development]] plan is viewed by the PRC as a massive, benevolent, and patriotic undertaking by the wealthier eastern coast to help the western parts of China, including Tibet, catch up in prosperity and living standards.
[[Image:Tibetanparliament asaf.jpg|thumb|260px|left|The Tibetan Parliament-in-Exile in [[Dharamsala]], India.]]
These claims are, however, largely discredited by many Tibetans. In 1989, the Panchen Lama was finally allowed to return to Shigatse, where he addressed a crowd of 30,000 and described what he saw as the suffering of Tibet and the harm being done to his country in the name of socialist reform under the rule of the PRC in terms reminiscent of the petition he had presented to Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1962.<ref>The petition of 10th Panchen Lama in 1962</ref>. Five days later, he mysteriously died of a massive heart attack at the age of 50.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news| title = Panchen Lama Poisoned arrow |url =http://www.bbc.co.uk/dna/h2g2/A644320 | publisher = BBC|date=2001-10-14 | accessdate = 2007-04-29}}</ref>
[[Image:GedhunCN.JPG|thumb|right|200px|[[Gedhun Choekyi Nyima]] 11th Panchen Lama claimed by exiled Tibetan]]
In 1995 the Dalai Lama named 6 year old [[Gedhun Choekyi Nyima]] as the 11th Panchen Lama without Chinese approval, while the PRC named another child, [[Gyancain Norbu]] in conflict. Gyancain Norbu was raised in Beijing and has appeared occasionally on state media. The PRC-selected Panchen Lama is rejected by exiled Tibetans and anti-China groups who commonly refer to him as the "Panchen Zuma" (literally "fake Panchen Lama"). Gedhun Choekyi Nyima and his family have gone missing — believed by some to be imprisoned by China — and under a hidden identity for protection and privacy according to the PRC.<ref>[http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA170071996 'Tibet: 6-year old boy missing and over 50 detained in Panchen Lama dispute'], ''Amnesty International'', January 18, 1996</ref>
exile.<ref name="telegraph050315"/>
In 2001 representatives of Tibet succeeded in gaining accreditation at a United Nations-sponsored meeting of [[non-governmental organization]]s. On August 29 Jampal Chosang, the head of the Tibetan coalition, stated that China had introduced "a new form of apartheid" in Tibet because "Tibetan culture, religion, and national identity are considered a threat" to China.<ref>Goble, Paul. [http://www.tibet.ca/en/wtnarchive/2001/9/4_3.html "China: Analysis From Washington — A Breakthrough For Tibet"], ''World Tibet Network News'', [http://www.tibet.ca/en/ Canada Tibet Committee], August 31, 2001.</ref>
In 2005, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao's offered to hold talks with the 14th Dalai Lama on the Tibet issue, provided he dropped the demand for independence. The Dalai Lama said in an interview with the [[South China Morning Post]] "We are willing to be part of the People's Republic of China, to have it govern and guarantee to preserve our Tibetan culture, spirituality and our environment." A statement that was seen as a renewed diplomatic offensive by the Tibetan government-in-exile. He had already said he would accept Chinese sovereignty over Tibet but insisted on real autonomy over its religious and cultural life. Tibetan government-in-exile, called on the Chinese government to respond.<ref name="telegraph050315">{{cite news |last=Spencer |first=Richard |title=Tibet ready to sacrifice sovereignty, says leader |publisher=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=[[2005-03-15]] |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2005/03/15/wdalai15.xml |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref> The move was seen to be unpopular with many Tibetans.
In January 2007 the Dalai Lama, in an interview on a private television channel, said "What we demand from the Chinese authority is more autonomy for Tibetans to protect their culture." He added that he had told the Tibetan people not to think in terms of history and to accept Tibet as a part of China.<ref name="hindu070124">{{cite news |title=Accept Tibet as part of China: Dalai Lama |publisher=[[The Hindu]] |date=[[2007-01-24]] |url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/01/24/stories/2007012407431500.htm |accessdate=2007-08-01}}</ref>
Talks between representatives of the Dalai Lama and the Chinese government began again in May, 2008 with little result, but more are scheduled to be held in June.<ref>"Dalai Lama's Envoys To Talk With Chinese. No Conditions Set; Transparency Calls Are Reiterated." By PETER WONACOTT, Wall Street Journal May 1, 2008.[http://online.wsj.com/public/article/SB121059238623984911-AOA4pJki5vpxLga8N83096glXSY_20080611.html?mod=tff_main_tff_top]</ref>
== Geography ==
{{Commonscat|Geography of Tibet}}
[[Image:TibetanPlateau.jpg|thumb|280px|Tibet is located on the [[Tibetan Plateau]], the world's highest region.]]
[[Image:TibetanMountains13.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Snow mountains in Tibet]]
{{main|Geography of Tibet}}
Tibet is located on the [[Tibetan Plateau]], the world's highest region. Most of the [[Himalaya]] mountain range, one of the youngest mountain ranges in the world at only 4 million years old, lies within Tibet. Its most famous peak, [[Mount Everest]], is on [[Nepal]]'s border with Tibet. The average altitude is about 3,000 m in the south and 4,500 m in the north.
[[Image:Yamdrok-tso-2.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Yamdrok tso lake]]
Several major rivers have their source in the Tibetan Plateau (mostly in present-day Qinghai Province). These include[[Yangtze River|Yangtze]], [[Yellow River]], [[Indus River]], [[Mekong]], [[Brahmaputra River]], [[Ganges]], [[Salween River|Salween]] and the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River (Tibet)| Yarlung Tsangpo River]]. The Indus, Brahmaputra rivers originate from a lake (Tib: Tso Mapham) in Western Tibet, near '''[[Mount Kailash]]'''. The mountain is a holy pilgrimage for both Hindus and Tibetans. The Hindus consider the mountain to be the abode of Lord Shiva. The Tibetan name for Mt Kailash is Khang Rinpoche. Tibet has numerous high-altitude lakes referred to in Tibetan as ''tso'' or ''co''. These include [[Lake Manasarovar]], [[Namtso]], [[Pangong Tso]], [[Yamdrok Lake]], [[Siling Co]], [[Lhamo La-tso]], [[Lumajangdong Co]], [[Lake Puma Yumco]], [[Lake Paiku]], [[Lake Rakshastal]], [[Dagze Co]] and [[Dong Co]]
[[Image:IMG 0839 Yarlong Tsangpo.jpg|thumb|left|250px|[[Yarlung Tsangpo River (Tibet)| Yarlung Tsangpo River]]]]
The atmosphere is severely dry nine months of the year, and average snowfall is only 18 inches, due to the [[rain shadow]] effect whereby mountain ranges prevent moisture from the ocean from reaching the plateaus. Western passes receive small amounts of fresh snow each year but remain traversable all year round. Low temperatures are prevalent throughout these western regions, where bleak desolation is unrelieved by any vegetation beyond the size of low bushes, and where wind sweeps unchecked across vast expanses of arid plain. The Indian [[monsoon]] exerts some influence on eastern Tibet. Northern Tibet is subject to high temperatures in the summer and intense cold in the winter.
Historic Tibet consists of several regions. These include [[Amdo]] (''A mdo'') in the northeast, incorporated by China into the provinces of [[Qinghai]], [[Gansu]] and [[Sichuan]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}}, [[Kham]](''Khams'') in the east, divided between Sichuan, northern [[Yunnan]] and Qinghai.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}, Western Kham, part of the Tibetan Autonomous Region and [[Ü-Tsang]] (''dBus gTsang'') (Ü in the center, Tsang in the center-west, and Ngari (''mNga' ris'') in the far west), part of the Tibetan Autonomous Region.
Tibetan cultural influences extend to the neighboring states of [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]], adjacent regions of India such as [[Sikkim]] and [[Ladakh]], and adjacent provinces of China where [[Tibetan Buddhism]] is the predominant religion.
On the border with India, the region popularly known among Chinese as [[South Tibet]]{{Fact|date=June 2007}} is claimed by China and administered by [[India]] as the state of [[Arunachal Pradesh]].
===Cities, towns and villages===
{{see|List of towns and villages in the Tibet Autonomous Region}}
[[Image:Downtown Shigatse.JPG|thumb|right|180px|[[Shigatse]]]]
[[Image:Jokhang Square, the first destination or drop-off for most tourists.jpg|thumb|left|40opx|Looking across the square at [[Jokhang]] temple, [[Lhasa]]]]
There are over 800 settlements in Tibet, [[Lhasa]] is Tibet's traditional capital and the capital of Tibet Autonomous Region. Lhasa contains the world heritage site the [[Potala Palace]] and [[Norbulingka]], the residences of the [[Dalai Lama]]. Lhasa contains a number of significant temples and monasteries which are deeply engrained in its history including [[Jokhang]] and [[Ramoche Temple]].
[[Shigatse]] is the country's second largest city, west of Lhasa. [[Gyantse]], [[Chamdo]] are also amongst the largest.
Other cities in Historic Tibet include, [[Nagchu]], [[Nyingchi]], [[Nedong]], [[Barkam]], [[Sakya, Tibet|Sakya]], [[Gartse]], [[Pelbar]], [[Lhatse]], and [[Tingri]]; in [[Sichuan]], [[Kangding]] (Dartsedo); in [[Qinghai]], [[Jyekundo]] or Yushu, [[Machen, Qinghai|Machen]], and [[Golmud]]. There is also a large Tibetan settlement in South India near [[Kushalanagara]]. India created this settlement for Tibetan refugees which had fled to India.
== Economy==
{{main|Economy of Tibet}}<!--DISPUTE THE RELIABILITY OF MUCH OF THIS SECTION-->
[[Image:In Tibet, yaks are decorated and honored by the families they are part of.jpg|thumb|left|220px|The Tibetan [[yak]] is an integral part of Tibetan life.]]
Tibet's GDP in 2001 was 13.9 billion yuan (USD1.8billion).<ref>{{cite news|title=China's Tibet Fact and Figures 2003|url=http://info.tibet.cn/en/newfeature/faf2003/t20050516_29443.htm|date=[[2002-08-26]]|publisher=China Tibet Information Service|accessdate=2006-02-24}}</ref> The Central government exempts Tibet from all taxation and provides 90% of Tibet's government expenditures.<ref>{{cite news|title=Tibet's economy depends on Beijing|url=http://216.35.221.77/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6083766|date=[[2002-08-26]]|publisher=NPR News|accessdate=2006-02-24}}</ref> The Tibetan economy is dominated by [[subsistence agriculture]]. Due to limited arable land, livestock raising is the primary occupation mainly on the Tibetan Plateau, among them are sheep, cattle, goats, camels, yaks and horses. However, the main crops grown are barley, wheat, [[buckwheat]], rye, potatoes and assorted fruits and vegetables.
In recent years, due to the increased interest in Tibetan Buddhism, [[tourism]] has become an increasingly important sector, and is actively promoted by the authorities. The Tibetan economy is heavily subsidized by the Central government and government cadres receive the second-highest salaries in China.<ref>{{cite news|title=High wages in Tibet benefit the privileged|url=http://www.hartford-hwp.com/archives/55/783.html|date=[[2005-02-21]]|publisher=Asia Labour News|accessdate=2006-02-24}}</ref>
[[Image:Tibettrain.jpg|thumb|240px|right|The world's highest railway connecting Tibet with eastern Chinese provinces for the first time by rail. Operational since July 2006.]]
Tourism brings in the most income from the sale of handicrafts. These include Tibetan hats, jewelry (silver and gold), wooden items, clothing, quilts, fabrics, [[Tibetan rug]]s and carpets.
The [[Qinghai-Tibet Railway]] which links the region to [[Qinghai]] in [[China proper]] was opened in 2006.<ref>{{cite news|title=China opens world's highest railway|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200607/s1676433.htm|date=[[2005-07-01]]|publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation|accessdate=2006-07-01}}</ref> The Chinese government claims that the line will promote the development of impoverished Tibet.<ref>{{cite news|title=China completes railway to Tibet|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4345494.stm|date=[[2005-10-15]]|publisher=BBC News|accessdate=2006-07-04}}</ref> But opponents argue the railway will harm Tibet. For instance, Tibetan opponents contend that it would only draw more Han Chinese residents, the country's dominant ethnic group, who have been migrating steadily to Tibet over the last decade, bringing with them their popular culture. Opponents believe that the large influx of Han Chinese will ultimately extinguish the local culture.<ref>{{cite news|title=Deemed a road to ruin, Tibetans say Beijing rail-way poses latest threat to minority culture|url=http://www.tibetanliberation.org/railroad802.html|date=[[2002-08-26]]|publisher=Boston Globe|accessdate=2006-07-04}}</ref>
Other opponents argue that the railway will damage Tibet's fragile ecology and that most of its economic benefits will go to migrant Han Chinese.<ref>{{cite news|title=China Opens 1st Train Service to Tibet|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/06/30/AR2006063000449.html|date=[[2006-06-30]]|publisher=Washington Post|accessdate=2006-07-04}}</ref> As activists call for a boycott of the railway, the Dalai Lama has urged Tibetans to "wait and see" what benefits the new line might bring to them. According to the Government-in-exile's spokesmen, the Dalai Lama welcomes the building of the railway, "conditioned on the fact that the railroad will bring benefit to the majority of Tibetans."<ref>{{cite news|title=Dalai Lama Urges 'Wait And See' On Tibet Railway|url=http://www.tibetlink.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=329&Itemid=2|date=[[2006-06-30]]|publisher=Deutsche Presse Agentur|accessdate=2006-07-04}}</ref>
In January of 2007, the Chinese government issued a report outlining the discovery of a large mineral deposit under the [[Tibetan Plateau]].<ref name=Tibet12345>{{Citeweb|url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/25/yourmoney/mine.php|title=Valuable mineral deposits found along Tibet railroad route|publisher=Reuters|date=2007-01-25|accessdate=2007-11-05}}</ref> The deposit has an estimated value of $128 billion and may double Chinese reserves of zinc, copper, and lead. [[The People's Republic of China|China]] sees this as a way to alleviate the country's dependence on foreign mineral imports necessary for its growing economy. However, critics worry that mining these vast resources will harm Tibet's fragile ecosystem as well take valuable resources away from the Tibetan people.<ref name=Tibet12345/>
== Demographics ==
[[Image:Tibetan lady.jpg|thumb|right|220px|An elderly Tibetan lady]]
[[Image:Tibet ethnolinguistic 1967.png|right|thumb|250px|Ethnolinguistic Groups of Tibetan language, 1967 <small>([[:Image:China ethnolinguistic 1967.jpg|See entire map]], which includes a key)</small>]]
[[Image:TAR-TAP-TAC.png|250px|thumb|Ethnic Tibetan autonomous entities set up by the People's Republic of China. Opponents to the PRC dispute the actual level of autonomy.]]
[[Image:Cubical houses in Xiangcheng valley.JPG|thumb|250px|right|Traditional Kham houses]]
Historically, the population of Tibet consisted of primarily ethnic [[Tibetan people|Tibetans]]. Other ethnic groups in Tibet include [[Monpa|Menba (Monpa)]], [[Lhoba]], [[Mongols]] and [[Hui Chinese]]. According to tradition the original ancestors of the Tibetan people, as represented by the six red bands in the Tibetan flag, are: the Se, Mu, Dong, Tong, Dru and Ra.
The issue of the proportion of the [[Han Chinese]] population in Tibet is a politically sensitive one. The Central Tibetan Administration, an exile group, says that the People's Republic of China has actively swamped Tibet with Han Chinese migrants in order to alter Tibet's demographic makeup.[http://www.tibet.com/HumanRights/poptrans.html]
=== View of the Tibetan exile community ===
Between the 1960s and 1980s, many prisoners (over 1 million, according to [[Harry Wu]]) were sent to [[laogai]] camps in [[Amdo]] ([[Qinghai]]), where they were then employed locally after release. Since the 1980s, increasing economic liberalization and internal mobility has also resulted in the influx of many [[Han Chinese]] into Tibet for work or settlement, though the actual number of this [[floating population]] remains disputed.
The [[Government of Tibet in Exile]] claims that, despite official statistics to the contrary, in reality non-ethnic Tibetans (including [[Han Chinese]] and [[Hui people|Hui]] Muslims) outnumber ethnic Tibetans. It claims that this is as a result of an active policy of demographically swamping the Tibetan people and further diminishing any chances of Tibetan political independence.[http://www.tibet.com/HumanRights/poptrans.html] The [[Dalai Lama]] has recently been reported as saying that the Tibetans had been reduced to a minority "in his homeland", by reference to population figures of [[Lhasa]], and accusing China of "demographic aggression".<ref>[http://www.phayul.com/news/article.aspx?id=18451&article=Dalai+Lama+accuses+China+of+'demographic+aggression'&t=1&c=1 Dalai Lama accuses China of 'demographic aggression']</ref>
[[Image:Kham tibet young girl smiling 2004.jpg|left|200px|thumb|A young Tibetan girl in a valley in the Kham region of Tibet.]]
The Government of Tibet in Exile questions all statistics given by the PRC government, since they do not include members of the [[People's Liberation Army]] garrisoned in Tibet, or the large floating population of unregistered migrants.[http://www.tibet.com/HumanRights/poptrans.html] The [[Qinghai-Tibet Railway]] ([[Xining]] to [[Lhasa]]) is also a major concern, as it is believed to further facilitate the influx of migrants.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/5133220.stm]
The Government of Tibet in Exile quotes an issue of ''[[People's Daily]]'' published in 1959 to claim that the Tibetan population has dropped significantly since 1959. According to the article, figures from the National Bureau of Statistics of the [[People's Republic of China]] show that the autonomous region of Tibet was populated by {{formatnum:1273969}} persons. In the Tibetan sectors of [[Kham]], {{formatnum:3381064}} Tibetans were counted. In Qinghai and other Tibetan sectors that are incorporated in [[Gansu]], {{formatnum:1675534}} Tibetans were counted. According to the total of these three numbers, the Tibetan population attained {{formatnum:6330567}} in 1959. <ref>People's Daily, Beijing, November 10, 1959, in [http://www.tibet.com/WhitePaper/white8.html Population transfer and control]</ref>
In 2000, the number of Tibetans as a whole of these regions was about {{formatnum:5400000}} according to National Bureau of Statistics<ref>{{formatnum:5416021}} At the time of the census of 2000: {{en}}{{zh}} [http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/statisticaldata/yearlydata/yarbook2003_e.pdf China Statistical Yearbook 2003], p. 48</ref>.
The Tibetan exile Government's analysis of these statistics originating from National Bureau of Statistics shows that in between 1959 and 2000, the Tibetan population decreased by about one million, a 15% decline. During the same period, the Chinese population doubled, and the world-wide population increased by 3-fold.<ref>[http://www.mazerolle.fr/demographie/cours2006/chapitre-09.htm#SectionI L'évolution démographique dans le monde : I - La Chine]</ref> This analysis gives an additional argument concerning the estimation of the number of Tibetan deaths during the period between 1959 and 1979. It also suggests the existence of a demographic deficit of the Tibetan population and the precise time course and causes must be specified.
The accuracy of this 1959 Tibetan population estimate quoted by the Government of Tibet in Exile is in conflict with the findings of the 1954 Chinese census report. The census states that the total population of the autonomous region of Tibet was 1,273,969; the total population of Kham was 3,381,064; and the total population of Qinghai was 1,675,534.<ref>[http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjgb/rkpcgb/qgrkpcgb/t20020404_16767.htm 1954 Chinese Census Report] {{languageicon|zh|Chinese}}</ref> These numbers were taken by the Government of Tibet in Exile as the population of Tibetans in each province.
=== View of the People's Republic of China ===
The PRC government does not view itself as an occupying power and has vehemently denied allegations of demographic swamping. The PRC also does not recognize [[Greater Tibet]] as claimed by the government of Tibet in Exile, saying that the idea was engineered by foreign [[Imperialism|imperialists]] as a plot to divide China amongst themselves, ([[Mongolia]] being a striking precedent, gaining independence with [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] backing and subsequently aligning itself with the [[Soviet Union]]) and that those areas outside the TAR were not controlled by the Tibetan government before 1959 in the first place, having been administered instead by other surrounding provinces for centuries.<ref>[http://news.xinhuanet.com/zhengfu/2002-11/15/content_630888.htm Xinhua News report] {{languageicon|zh|Chinese}}</ref>
The PRC gives the number of Tibetans in [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] as 2.4 million, as opposed to 190,000 non-Tibetans, and the number of Tibetans in all Tibetan autonomous entities combined (slightly smaller than the Greater Tibet claimed by exiled Tibetans) as 5.0 million, as opposed to 2.3 million non-Tibetans. In the TAR itself, much of the Han population is to be found in [[Lhasa]]. Population control policies like the [[one-child policy]] only apply to [[Han Chinese]], not to minorities such as Tibetans <ref>[http://www.gov.cn/banshi/2005-08/21/content_25059.htm The law of birth control, The People's Republic of China]</ref>.
[[Jampa Phuntsok]], chairman of the TAR, has also said that the central government has no policy of migration into Tibet due to its harsh high-altitude conditions, that the 6% Han in the TAR is a very fluid group mainly doing business or working, and that there is no immigration problem.<ref>[http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2003-08-27/1644645902s.shtml SINA News report] {{languageicon|zh|Chinese}}</ref>
With regards to the historical population of ethnic Tibetans, the Chinese government claims that according to the First National Census conducted in 1954, there were 2,770,000 ethnic Tibetans in China, including 1,270,000 in the TAR; whereas in the Fourth National Census conducted in 1990, there were 4,590,000 ethnic Tibetans in China, including 2,090,000 in the TAR. These figures are used to advance the claim that the Tibetan population has doubled since 1951. <ref>[http://www.tibetology.ac.cn/article2/ShowArticle.asp?ArticleID=2764 Population of Tibet 1950-1990] {{languageicon|zh|Chinese}}</ref>
This table<ref name = "ZH">Department of Population, Social, Science and Technology Statistics of the National Bureau of Statistics of China (国家统计局人口和社会科技统计司) and Department of Economic Development of the State Ethnic Affairs Commission of China (国家民族事务委员会经济发展司), eds. ''Tabulation on Nationalities of 2000 Population Census of China'' (《2000年人口普查中国民族人口资料》). 2 vols. Beijing: Nationalities Publishing House (民族出版社), 2003 (ISBN 7-105-05425-5).</ref> includes all Tibetan [[autonomous entities of China|autonomous entities]] in the People's Republic of China, plus Xining PLC and Haidong P. The latter two are included to complete the figures for Qinghai province, and also because they are claimed as parts of Greater Tibet by the Government of Tibet in exile.
P = Prefecture; AP = Autonomous prefecture; PLC = Prefecture-level city; AC = Autonomous county.
Excludes members of the [[People's Liberation Army]] in active service.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right"
!align="center" colspan="8"| Major ethnic groups in Greater Tibet by region, 2000 census.
|-
!
! Total
!colspan="2"| [[Tibetans]]
!colspan="2"| [[Han Chinese]]
!colspan="2"| others
|-
|align="left"| [[Tibet Autonomous Region]]:
| 2,616,329
| 2,427,168
| '''92.8%'''
| 158,570
| 6.1%
| 30,591
| 1.2%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Lhasa]] PLC
| 474,499
| 387,124
| '''81.6%'''
| 80,584
| 17.0%
| 6,791
| 1.4%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Qamdo Prefecture]]
| 586,152
| 563,831
| '''96.2%'''
| 19,673
| 3.4%
| 2,648
| 0.5%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Shannan Prefecture]]
| 318,106
| 305,709
| '''96.1%'''
| 10,968
| 3.4%
| 1,429
| 0.4%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Xigazê Prefecture]]
| 634,962
| 618,270
| '''97.4%'''
| 12,500
| 2.0%
| 4,192
| 0.7%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Nagqu Prefecture]]
| 366,710
| 357,673
| '''97.5%'''
| 7,510
| 2.0%
| 1,527
| 0.4%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Ngari Prefecture]]
| 77,253
| 73,111
| '''94.6%'''
| 3,543
| 4.6%
| 599
| 0.8%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Nyingchi Prefecture]]
| 158,647
| 121,450
| '''76.6%'''
| 23,792
| 15.0%
| 13,405
| 8.4%
|-
|align="left"|[[Qinghai]] Province:
| 4,822,963
| 1,086,592
| 22.5%
| 2,606,050
| '''54.0%'''
| 1,130,321
| 23.4%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Xining]] PLC
| 1,849,713
| 96,091
| 5.2%
| 1,375,013
| '''74.3%'''
| 378,609
| 20.5%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Haidong Prefecture]]
| 1,391,565
| 128,025
| 9.2%
| 783,893
| '''56.3%'''
| 479,647
| 34.5%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Haibei Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Haibei AP]]
| 258,922
| 62,520
| 24.1%
| 94,841
| 36.6%
| 101,561
| '''39.2%'''
|-
|align="left"| - [[Huangnan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Huangnan AP]]
| 214,642
| 142,360
| '''66.3%'''
| 16,194
| 7.5%
| 56,088
| 26.1%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Hainan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Hainan AP]]
| 375,426
| 235,663
| '''62.8%'''
| 105,337
| 28.1%
| 34,426
| 9.2%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Golog Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Golog AP]]
| 137,940
| 126,395
| '''91.6%'''
| 9,096
| 6.6%
| 2,449
| 1.8%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Gyêgu Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Gyêgu AP]]
| 262,661
| 255,167
| '''97.1%'''
| 5,970
| 2.3%
| 1,524
| 0.6%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Haixi Mongol and Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Haixi AP]]
| 332,094
| 40,371
| 12.2%
| 215,706
| '''65.0%'''
| 76,017
| 22.9%
|-
|align="left" colspan="8"| Tibetan areas in [[Sichuan]] province
|-
|align="left"| - [[Ngawa Tibetan and Qiang Autonomous Prefecture|Ngawa AP]]
| 847,468
| 455,238
| '''53.7%'''
| 209,270
| 24.7%
| 182,960
| 21.6%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Garzê Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Garzê AP]]
| 897,239
| 703,168
| '''78.4%'''
| 163,648
| 18.2%
| 30,423
| 3.4%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Muli Tibetan Autonomous County|Muli AC]]
| 124,462
| 60,679
| '''48.8%'''
| 27,199
| 21.9%
| 36,584
| 29.4%
|-
|align="left" colspan="8"| Tibetan areas in [[Yunnan]] province
|-
|align="left"| - [[Dêqên Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Dêqên AP]]
| 353,518
| 117,099
| 33.1%
| 57,928
| 16.4%
| 178,491
| '''50.5%'''
|-
|align="left" colspan="8"| Tibetan areas in [[Gansu]] province
|-
|align="left"| - [[Gannan Tibetan Autonomous Prefecture|Gannan AP]]
| 640,106
| 329,278
| '''51.4%'''
| 267,260
| 41.8%
| 43,568
| 6.8%
|-
|align="left"| - [[Tianzhu Tibetan Autonomous County|Tianzhu AC]]
| 221,347
| 66,125
| 29.9%
| 139,190
| '''62.9%'''
| 16,032
| 7.2%
|-
|align="left" colspan="8"| Total for Greater Tibet:
|-
|align="left"| With Xining and Haidong
|10,523,432
| 5,245,347
| '''49.8%'''
| 3,629,115
| 34.5%
| 1,648,970
| 15.7%
|-
|align="left"| Without Xining and Haidong
| 7,282,154
| 5,021,231
| '''69.0%'''
| 1,470,209
| 20.2%
| 790,714
| 10.9%
|}
==Human Rights==
{{POV-section|date=April 2008}}
{{POV-check}}
According to the non-government Save Tibet website, the Tibetan people are denied most rights guaranteed in the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], including the rights to self-determination, freedom of speech, assembly, movement, expression, and travel. <ref> http://www.savetibet.org/tibet/humanrights/index.php </ref> Elliot Sperling, an Associate Professor of Tibetan Studies at Indiana University, in a statement to the Human Rights Watch, also detailed human rights violation in Tibet.<ref> http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/china-99/tibet-test0613.htm </ref> The Tibet Justice.org claims that according to UN Development Programme data, Tibet is ranked the lowest among China’s 31 provinces <ref> http://www.tibetjustice.org/reports/globalization.pdf </ref> , and is ranked 153 out of the 160 countries on the Human Development Index. <ref> http://www.tew.org/development/devel.tibet.update.html </ref>
Amnesty International has stated that political prisoners are often beaten and tortured, and sometimes summarily executed. Since the 1988 ratification of the UN Convention Against Torture by China, 69 Tibetans are recorded as having died as a result of torture in Chinese prisons. Human rights groups have confirmed by name over 700 Tibetan political prisoners in Tibet, many of them detained without charge or trial. <ref> http://www.amnesty.org/en/library/asset/ASA17/009/2002/en/dom-ASA170092002en.html </ref>
Tibetologist Thomas Laird claims that there is no evidence to support China's claim that Tibet is autonomous,<ref>Laird, Thomas (2006). ''The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama'', pp. 352-357. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1.</ref> as all local legislation is subject to approval of the central government in Beijing.
The Tibetan exile government claims that China does not allow independent human rights organisations into Tibet, and foreign delegations invited to Tibet are denied independent access to meet with Tibetans. <ref> http://www.tibet.com/humanrights/hratglance.html </ref> <ref> http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=26248 </ref> The Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy claims that more than 11,000 monks and nuns have been expelled from Tibet since 1996 for opposing "patriotic re-education" sessions conducted at monasteries and nunneries under the "Strike Hard" campaign. <ref> http://www.tchrd.org/publications/annual_reports/1999/ </ref>
Thomas Laird also claims that China continues to encourage the transfer of Chinese settlers into Tibet. This threatens the survival of the Tibetan religious, cultural and national identity.<ref>Laird, Thomas (2006). ''The Story of Tibet: Conversations with the Dalai Lama'', pp. 357-358. Grove Press, N.Y. ISBN 978-0-8021-827-1.</ref><ref> http://www.radicalparty.org/onu_case/29_3_96.htm </ref> The Free Tibet website claims that unemployment in schools, discussion of Tibetan cultural, religious and social issues is discouraged, and Chinese culture is promoted. <ref> http://www.freetibet.org/info/facts/fact1.html </ref>
The Tibetan Center for Human Rights and Democracy claims that unemployment among Tibetans is high. An unequal taxation system further exacerbates the conditions of poverty for Tibetans in rural areas. <ref> http://www.tchrd.org/publications/annual_reports/1999/09_subsistence.html </ref> Many basic rights, such as the right to housing, education and health, remain unfulfilled.
== Culture ==<!-- This section is linked from [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama]] -->
{{main|Culture of Tibet}}
{{Tibetan Buddhism}}
[[Image:Labrang02.jpg|thumb|right|160px|A young monk at [[Labrang]]]]
===Religion===
====Tibetan Buddhism====
{{main|Bön|Tibetan Buddhism}}
[[Religion]] and spirituality is extremely important to the Tibetans and has a strong influence over all aspects of lives; engrained deeply into their cultural heritage. Bön is the ancient traditional religion of Tibet, but following the introduction of [[Tantric Buddhism]] into Tibet by [[Padmasambhava]] this became eclipsed by [[Tibetan Buddhism]], a distinctive form of [[Vajrayana]]. Tibetan Buddhism is practiced not only in Tibet but also in [[Mongolia]], parts of northern India, the [[Buryat Republic]], the [[Tuva Republic]], and in the [[Republic of Kalmykia]].
Tibetan Buddhism has four main traditions (the suffix ''pa'' is comparable to "er" in English):
[[Image:1stDalaiLama.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[1st Dalai Lama]]]]
* '''[[Gelug|Gelug(pa)]]''', ''Way of Virtue'', also known casually as ''Yellow Hat'', whose spiritual head is the [[Ganden Tripa]] and whose temporal, the [[Dalai Lama]]. Successive Dalai Lamas ruled [[Tibet]] from the mid-17th to mid-20th centuries. This order was founded in the 14th to 15th century by [[Je Tsongkhapa]], based on the foundations of the [[Kadampa]] tradition. Tsongkhapa was renowned for both his scholasticism and his virtue. The Dalai Lama belongs to the Gelugpa school, and is regarded as the embodiment of the Bodhisattva of Compassion<ref> [[Avalokitesvara]], [[Chenrezig]]</ref>.
* '''[[Kagyu|Kagyu(pa)]]''', ''Oral Lineage''. This contains one major subsect and one minor subsect. The first, the Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to [[Gampopa]]. In turn, the Dagpo Kagyu consists of four major sub-sects: the [[Karma Kagyu]], headed by a [[Karmapa]], the Tsalpa Kagyu, the Barom Kagyu, and Pagtru Kagyu. There are further eight minor sub-sects, all of which trace their root to Pagtru Kagyu. Among the eight sub-sects the most notable of are the [[Drigung Kagyu|Drikung Kagyu]] and the [[Drukpa Kagyu]]. The once-obscure [[Shangpa Kagyu]], which was famously represented by the 20th century teacher [[Kalu Rinpoche]], traces its history back to the Indian master Niguma, sister of Kagyu lineage holder [[Naropa]]. This is an oral tradition which is very much concerned with the experiential dimension of meditation. Its most famous exponent was Milarepa, an eleventh century mystic.
* '''[[Nyingma|Nyingma(pa)]]''', ''The Ancient Ones''. This is the oldest, the original order founded by [[Padmasambhava]].
* '''[[Sakya|Sakya(pa)]]''', ''Grey Earth'', headed by the [[Sakya Trizin]], founded by Khon Konchog Gyalpo, a disciple of the great translator Drokmi Lotsawa. [[Sakya Pandita]] 1182–1251CE was the great grandson of Khon Konchog Gyalpo. This school very much represents the scholarly tradition.
====Islam====
{{main|Islam in Tibet}}
In Tibetan cities, there are also small communities of [[Tibetan Muslim|Muslims]], known as Kachee (Kache), who trace their origin to immigrants from three main regions: Kashmir (Kachee Yul in ancient Tibetan), Ladakh and the Central Asian Turkic countries. Islamic influence in Tibet also came from Persia. After 1959 a group of Tibetan Muslims made a case for Indian nationality based on their historic roots to Kashmir and the Indian government declared all Tibetan Muslims Indian citizens later on that year.<ref>Masood Butt, [http://www.tibet.com/Muslim/tibetan-muslim.html 'Muslims of Tibet'], The Office of Tibet, January/February 1994</ref> There is also a well established Chinese Muslim community (gya kachee), which traces its ancestry back to the [[Hui people|Hui]] ethnic group of China. It is said that Muslim migrants from Kashmir and Ladakh first entered Tibet around the 12th century. Marriages and social interaction gradually led to an increase in the population until a sizable community grew up around [[Lhasa]].{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
====Buddhist monasteries in Tibet====
[[Image:Tashilhunpo Monastery, Shigatse.JPG|thumb|right|300px|[[Tashilhunpo]]]]
{{main|List of Buddhist monasteries in Tibet}}
===Tibetan art===
{{main|Tibetan art}}
[[Image:thanka.jpg|thumb|left|220px|A [[thangka]] painting in [[Sikkim]] ]]
Tibetan representations of art are intrinsically bound with [[Tibetan Buddhism]] and commonly depict [[deities]] or variations of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]] in various forms from bronze Buddhist statues and shrines, to highly colorful [[thangka]] paintings and [[mandala]]s.
===Architecture===
[[Image:Sand mandala tibet 1.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Tibetan sand mandala]]
{{main|Tibetan culture#Architecture}}
Tibetan architecture contains Oriental and [[India]]n influences, and reflects a deeply [[Buddhist]] approach. The [[Buddhist wheel]], along with two dragons, can be seen on nearly every [[Gompa]] in Tibet. The design of the Tibetan [[Chörten]]s can vary, from roundish walls in [[Kham]] to squarish, four-sided walls in [[Ladakh]].
The most distinctive feature of Tibetan architecture is that many of the houses and monasteries are built on elevated, sunny sites facing the south, and are often made out of a mixture of rocks, wood, cement and earth. Little fuel is available for heat or lighting, so flat roofs are built to conserve heat, and multiple windows are constructed to let in sunlight. Walls are usually sloped inwards at 10 degrees as a precaution against frequent earthquakes in the mountainous area.
[[Image:Potala from SW.jpg|thumb|left|260px|The Potala Palace]]
Standing at 117 meters in height and 360 meters in width, the [[Potala Palace]] is considered as the most important example of Tibetan architecture. Formerly the residence of the [[Dalai Lama]], it contains over one thousand rooms within thirteen stories, and houses portraits of the past Dalai Lamas and statues of the Buddha. It is divided between the outer White Palace, which serves as the administrative quarters, and the inner Red Quarters, which houses the assembly hall of the Lamas, chapels, 10,000 shrines, and a vast library of Buddhist scriptures.
===Music===
{{main|Music of Tibet}}
[[Image:Tibetan monks Boudhanath 1973.JPG|thumb|right|280px|[[Boudhanath]], Nepal. 1973]]
The music of Tibet reflects the cultural heritage of the trans-Himalayan region, centered in Tibet but also known wherever ethnic [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]] groups are found in [[India]], [[Bhutan]], [[Nepal]] and further abroad. First and foremost Tibetan music is [[religious music]], reflecting the profound influence of [[Tibetan Buddhism]] on the culture.
Tibetan [[music]] often involves [[chanting]] in [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] or [[Sanskrit]], as an integral part of the religion. These chants are complex, often recitations of [[sacred text]]s or in celebration of various [[festival]]s. [[Yang]] chanting, performed without metrical timing, is accompanied by resonant [[drums]] and low, sustained syllables. Other styles include those unique to the various schools of Tibetan Buddhism, such as the classical music of the popular [[Gelugpa]] school, and the romantic music of the [[Nyingmapa]], [[Sakyapa]] and [[Kagyupa]] schools.
[[Nangma]] dance music is especially popular in the [[karaoke]] bars of the urban center of Tibet, [[Lhasa]]. Another form of popular music is the classical [[gar (music)|gar]] style, which is performed at rituals and ceremonies. [[Lu (music)|Lu]] are a type of songs that feature glottal vibrations and high pitches. There are also epic bards who sing of Tibet's national hero [[Gesar]].
===Festivals===
{{main|Tibetan Festivals}}
[[Image:IMG 1016 Lhasa Barkhor.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Monlam Prayer Festival]]]]
Tibet has various festivals which commonly are performed to worship the Buddha throughout the year. [[Losar]] is the Tibetan New Year Festival. Preparations for the festive event are manifested by special offerings to family shrine deities, painted doors with religious symbols, and other painstaking jobs done to prepare for the event. Tibetans eat Guthuk (barley crumb food with filling) on New Year's Eve with their families. The [[Monlam Prayer Festival]] follows it in the first month of the [[Tibetan calendar]], falling on the fourth up to the eleventh day of the first Tibetan month. which involves many Tibetans dancing and participating in sports events and sharing picnics. The event was established in 1049 by Tsong Khapa, the founder of the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama's order.
===Other===
Historically, Tibet is considered the home of the ancient art of paper folding known as [[Origami]]. The tradition started as an artistic way of folding chanted or meditated mantras into decorative shapes in order to help spread their influence.
The [[Potala Palace]], former residence of the [[Dalai Lama]]s, is a [[World Heritage Site]], as is [[Norbulingka]], former summer residence of the Dalai Lama.
Since 2002, Tibetans in exile have allowed a [[Miss Tibet]] [[beauty contest]] in spite of concerns that this event is considered a Western influence. The beauty contest is condemned by the Tibetan government in exile.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
==Cuisine==
{{main|Tibetan cuisine}}
[[Image:Monk churning butter tea.JPG|thumb|left|140px|A monk churning [[Butter tea]]]]
The most important crop in Tibet is [[barley]], and dough made from barley flour called [[tsampa]], is the [[staple food]] of Tibet. This is either rolled into noodles or made into steamed dumplings called [[momo (food)|momos]]. [[Meat]] dishes are likely to be [[yak]], [[goat]], or [[Lamb (food)|mutton]], often dried, or cooked into a spicy [[stew]] with [[potato]]es. [[Mustard seed]] is cultivated in Tibet, and therefore features heavily in its cuisine. Yak [[yoghurt]], [[butter]] and [[cheese]] are frequently eaten, and well-prepared yoghurt is considered something of a prestige item. [[Butter tea]] is very popular to drink and many Tibetans drink up to 100 cups a day.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}
==Tibet in popular culture==
In recent years there have been a number of films produced about Tibet, most notably Hollywood films such as ''[[Seven Years in Tibet (1997 film)|Seven Years in Tibet]]'', starring [[Brad Pitt]], and ''[[Kundun]]'', a biography of the [[14th Dalai Lama]], directed by [[Martin Scorsese]]. Both of these films were banned by the Chinese government because of Tibetan nationalist overtones. Other films include ''[[Samsara (2001 film)|Samsara]]'', ''[[The Cup]]'' and the 1999 ''[[Himalaya]]'', a French-American produced film with a Tibetan cast set in [[Nepal]] and Tibet. In 2005, exile Tibetan filmmaker Tenzing Sonam and his partner Ritu Sarin made ''[[Dreaming Lhasa]]'', the first internationally recognized feature film to come out of the diaspora to explore the contemporary reality of Tibet.
''[[Kekexili: Mountain Patrol]]'', is a film made by National Geographic about a Chinese reporter that goes to Tibet to report on the issue involving the endangerment of Tibetan Antelope. It won numerous awards at home and abroad.
In 1995 a British [[electronic music]] act [[Banco de Gaia]] released the album ''[[Last Train to Lhasa]]'', dedicated to the [[music of Tibet]], with many samples of Tibetan [[chant]]ings.
{{-}}
==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:IMG 1972 Sakya.jpg|Monks at Sakya Monastery
Image:IMG 1719 Gyantze.jpg|Gyantse
Image:IMG 1125 Lhasa Sera.jpg|Monks at Sera
Image:YumbuLhakhang.jpg|Yumbo Lhakang
Image:Drepung monastery.jpg|Drepung Monastery
Image:Sera15.JPG|Sera Monastery
Image:IMG 1206 Lhasa Potala.jpg|Former quarters of the Dalai Lama
Image:Painting Thangka Lhasa Tibet Luca Galuzzi 2006.jpg|Thangka painting
Image:Litang-ninos-c01-f.jpg|Tibetan children in [[Litang County|Lithang]]
</gallery>
== References ==
{{reflist|2}}
==Further reading==
* Allen, Charles (2004). Duel in the Snows: The True Story of the Younghusband Mission to Lhasa. London: John Murray, 2004. ISBN 0-7195-5427-6.
* Bell, Charles (1924). Tibet: Past & Present. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
* Dowman, Keith (1988). ''The Power-Places of Central Tibet: The Pilgrim's Guide.'' Routledge & Kegan Paul. London, ISBN 0-7102-1370-0. New York, ISBN 0-14-019118-6.
* Goldstein, Melvyn C.; with the help of Gelek Rimpoche. ''A History of Modern Tibet, 1913-1951: The Demise of the Lamaist State.'' Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers (1993), ISBN 81-215-0582-8. University of California (1991), ISBN 0-520-07590-0.
* Grunfeld, Tom (1996). ''The Making of Modern Tibet.'' ISBN 1-56324-713-5.
* Gyatso, Palden (1997). "The Autobiography of a Tibetan Monk". Grove Press. NY, NY. ISBN 0-8021-3574-9
* Human Rights in China: ''China, Minority Exclusion, Marginalization and Rising Tensions'', London, Minority Rights Group International, 2007
* McKay, Alex (1997). Tibet and the British Raj: The Frontier Cadre 1904-1947. London: Curzon. ISBN 0-7007-0627-5.
* Norbu, Thubten Jigme; Turnbull, Colin (1968). ''Tibet: Its History, Religion and People.'' Reprint: Penguin Books (1987).
* Pachen, Ani; Donnely, Adelaide (2000). ''Sorrow Mountain: The Journey of a Tibetan Warrior Nun.'' Kodansha America, Inc. ISBN 1-56836-294-3.
* Parenti, Michael (2004).[http://www.michaelparenti.org/Tibet.html "Friendly Feudalism: The Tibet Myth".]
* Petech, Luciano (1997). China and Tibet in the Early XVIIIth Century: History of the Establishment of Chinese Protectorate in Tibet. T'oung Pao Monographies, Brill Academic Publishers, ISBN 9-00403-442-0.
* Samuel, Geoffrey (1993). ''Civilized Shamans: Buddhism in Tibetan Societies.'' Smithsonian ISBN 1-56098-231-4.
* Schell, Orville (2000). ''Virtual Tibet: Searching for Shangri-La from the Himalayas to Hollywood.'' Henry Holt. ISBN 0-8050-4381-0.
* Shakya, Tsering (1999). The Dragon in the Land of Snows: A History of Modern Tibet Since 1947. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11814-7.
* Smith, Warren W. (Jr.) (1996). Tibetan Nation: A History of Tibetan Nationalism and Sino-Tibetan Relations. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3155-2.
* Stein, R. A. (1962). ''Tibetan Civilization.'' First published in French; English translation by J. E. Stapelton Driver. Reprint: Stanford University Press (with minor revisions from 1977 Faber & Faber edition), 1995. ISBN 0-8047-0806-1.
* Thurman, Robert (2002). ''Robert Thurman on Tibet.'' DVD. ASIN B00005Y722.
* Wilby, Sorrel (1988). ''Journey Across Tibet: A Young Woman's {{convert|1900|mi|km|-1|sing=on}} Trek Across the Rooftop of the World.'' Contemporary Books. ISBN 0-8092-4608-2.
* Wilson, Brandon (2004). ''Yak Butter Blues: A Tibetan Trek of Faith.'' Pilgrim's Tales. ISBN 0977053660, ISBN 0977053679. (second edition 2005)
* Wang Jiawei (2000). "The Historical Status of China's Tibet". ISBN-7-80113-304-8.
* [http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1081523 Tibet wasn't always ours, says Chinese scholar] by Venkatesan Vembu, Daily News & Analysis, [[22 February]] [[2007]]
== See also ==
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{{Commonscat|Tibet}}
* [[Amdo]] and [[Kham]] in eastern Tibet
* [[Évariste Régis Huc]] (Abbé Huc) visited Tibet in 1845–6, and wrote his observations in ''Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les années 1844–1846''.
* [[Francis Younghusband]] led a punitive [[British expedition to Tibet|military expedition]] to Tibet in 1904.
* [[Alexandra David-Neel]] visited [[Lhasa]] in 1924, and wrote several books about the country and its culture.
* [[Human rights in the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Central Tibetan Administration]] aka Tibetan Government in Exile
* [[International Tibet Independence Movement]] aka Free Tibet Movement
* [[List of active autonomist and secessionist movements]]
* [[Tibetan American]]
* [[Seven Years in Tibet]]
* [[Lobsang Rampa]]
* [[Kundun]]
* [[Last Train to Lhasa]]
* [[Tibetan Buddhism]]
* [[South Tibet]]
* [[Nangpa La killings]]
* [[Ladakh]]
* [[Baltistan]]
* [[Phuntsog Nyidron]]
== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|Tibet}}
===Against PRC rule and policies in Tibet===
* [http://www.tibet.com/ Website of the Office of Tibet,London]
* [http://www.tibet.net/ Tibetan Government in Exile's government site]
* [http://www.studentsforafreetibet.org/ Students for a Free Tibet's website]
* [http://www.friendsoftibet.org/ People's Movement For An Independent Tibet]
* [http://tibetan.review.to/ Tibetan Review]
* [http://www.savetibet.org/ The International Campaign for Tibet]
* [http://www.phayul.com/ Tibet News Site]
* [http://www.tibet.org/ Tibet Online ]
* [http://www.tibet.ca/ Canada Tibet Committee]
* [http://www.atc.org.au/ Australia Tibet Council]
* [http://www.tibet.at/ Save Tibet-Austria]
* [http://www.tibet-info.org/ Team for Tibet ](Belgium)
* [http://www.tibetlibre.org/Accueil/ Etudiants pour un Tibet Libre (Students for a Free Tibet - France)]
* [http://www.tibet.fr/ de l'association France Tibet]
* [http://www.tibet-info.net/www/index.php Tibet Info] (France)
=== For PRC rule and policies in Tibet ===
* [http://en.tibet.cn/history/index.htm Tibetan History on the China Tibet Information Center of the PRC]
* [http://english.people.com.cn/features/tibetpaper/tibet.html White Paper on Tibetan Culture and Homa]
=== Apolitical ===
* [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/lweb/indiv/eastasian/Tibetan/links.html Tibetan Studies Internet Resources]
* [http://www.terranomada.com/tibet/tibet.html Pictures of Tibet]
* [http://www.haiweitrails.com/timeline_tibet.htm Haiwei Trails - Timeline of Tibet]
* [http://dharma-haven.org/tibetan/language.htm The Language of Tibet]
* [http://www.tibetphotogallery.com Tibet Photo Gallery - A complete Travel Photos]
*{{wikitravel}}
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